An example of the variable ratio reinforcement schedule is gambling. Imagine that Sarah—generally a smart, thrifty woman—visits Las Vegas for the first time. She is not a gambler, but out of curiosity she puts a quarter into the slot machine, and then another, and another.
Nothing happens. Two dollars in quarters later, her curiosity is fading, and she is just about to quit. But then, the machine lights up, bells go off, and Sarah gets 50 quarters back.
Now might be a sensible time to quit. And yet, she keeps putting money into the slot machine because she never knows when the next reinforcement is coming. Because the reinforcement schedule in most types of gambling has a variable ratio schedule, people keep trying and hoping that the next time they will win big. This is one of the reasons that gambling is so addictive—and so resistant to extinction. In operant conditioning, extinction of a reinforced behavior occurs at some point after reinforcement stops, and the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule.
In a variable ratio schedule, the point of extinction comes very slowly, as described above. But in the other reinforcement schedules, extinction may come quickly. For example, if June presses the button for the pain relief medication before the allotted time her doctor has approved, no medication is administered.
Among the reinforcement schedules, variable ratio is the most productive and the most resistant to extinction. Fixed interval is the least productive and the easiest to extinguish [link]. The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable ratio schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement e. A fixed ratio schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement e.
The variable interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate e. The fixed interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement e.
Skinner uses gambling as an example of the power and effectiveness of conditioning behavior based on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule. Beyond the power of variable ratio reinforcement, gambling seems to work on the brain in the same way as some addictive drugs.
The Illinois Institute for Addiction Recovery n. Specifically, gambling may activate the reward centers of the brain, much like cocaine does.
Research has shown that some pathological gamblers have lower levels of the neurotransmitter brain chemical known as norepinephrine than do normal gamblers Roy, et al. According to a study conducted by Alec Roy and colleagues, norepinephrine is secreted when a person feels stress, arousal, or thrill; pathological gamblers use gambling to increase their levels of this neurotransmitter.
Another researcher, neuroscientist Hans Breiter, has done extensive research on gambling and its effects on the brain. Deficiencies in serotonin another neurotransmitter might also contribute to compulsive behavior, including a gambling addiction.
However, it is very difficult to ascertain the cause because it is impossible to conduct a true experiment it would be unethical to try to turn randomly assigned participants into problem gamblers. It also is possible that some overlooked factor, or confounding variable, played a role in both the gambling addiction and the differences in brain chemistry.
Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill. Although strict behaviorists such as Skinner and Watson refused to believe that cognition such as thoughts and expectations plays a role in learning, another behaviorist, Edward C.
Tolman , had a different opinion. This finding was in conflict with the prevailing idea at the time that reinforcement must be immediate in order for learning to occur, thus suggesting a cognitive aspect to learning.
In the experiments, Tolman placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward for finding their way through it. He also studied a comparison group that was rewarded with food at the end of the maze. As the unreinforced rats explored the maze, they developed a cognitive map : a mental picture of the layout of the maze [link]. After 10 sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of the maze. As soon as the rats became aware of the food, they were able to find their way through the maze quickly, just as quickly as the comparison group, which had been rewarded with food all along.
This is known as latent learning : learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it. Psychologist Edward Tolman found that rats use cognitive maps to navigate through a maze. Have you ever worked your way through various levels on a video game? You learned when to turn left or right, move up or down.
In that case you were relying on a cognitive map, just like the rats in a maze. Latent learning also occurs in humans. Children may learn by watching the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it at a later date, when the learned material is needed.
Instead, Ravi follows the same route on his bike that his dad would have taken in the car. This demonstrates latent learning.
Ravi had learned the route to school, but had no need to demonstrate this knowledge earlier. However, some buildings are confusing because they include many areas that look alike or have short lines of sight. Psychologist Laura Carlson suggests that what we place in our cognitive map can impact our success in navigating through the environment.
She suggests that paying attention to specific features upon entering a building, such as a picture on the wall, a fountain, a statue, or an escalator, adds information to our cognitive map that can be used later to help find our way out of the building. Operant conditioning is based on the work of B.
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated. An animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a specific behavior. The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement positive or negative increases the likelihood of a behavioral response.
All punishment positive or negative decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response. Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward behavior depending on either a set or variable period of time.
Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment, and provide several examples of each based on your own experiences. Think of a behavior that you have that you would like to change. How could you use behavior modification, specifically positive reinforcement, to change your behavior? What is your positive reinforcer? A Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber used to train animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviors, like pressing a lever.
When the animals perform the desired behavior, they receive a reward: food or water. In negative reinforcement you are taking away an undesirable stimulus in order to increase the frequency of a certain behavior e. Punishment is designed to reduce a behavior e. Shaping is an operant conditioning method in which you reward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
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Hanley Rd, Suite St. Louis, MO Subject optional. Email address: Your name:. Example Question 1 : Operant Conditioning. Possible Answers: Variable interval. Correct answer: Fixed ratio. Explanation : Because John's parents reward him based on how much work he does, it is a ratio-based schedule of reinforcement. Report an Error. Example Question 2 : Operant Conditioning. Possible Answers: Skinner box.
Correct answer: Skinner box. Explanation : When Skinner developed the operant conditioning box, it famously became known as the Skinner box. Possible Answers: Positive punishment. Correct answer: Placebo. Explanation : Although placebos are used in a great deal of experiments, the Skinner box was developed to study the impact of reinforcement and punishment on learning and behavior.
Example Question 4 : Operant Conditioning. Possible Answers: Fixed interval. Correct answer: Negative reinforcement. Explanation : Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative stimulus in this case, the homework is removed in response to the desired behavior behaving well in class.
Example Question 5 : Operant Conditioning. Possible Answers: continuous. Correct answer: fixed-interval. Explanation : Because the passage of time is the only factor governing the release of the food pellets, this is an interval-based schedule; because the food is released regularly every twenty minutes, it is a fixed interval schedule. Example Question 6 : Operant Conditioning. Possible Answers: None of these. Correct answer: Positive reward. Explanation : Positive reinforcement involves the introduction of a new stimulus, whether that stimulus is pleasing or harmful.
Example Question 7 : Operant Conditioning. What are the methods to use a stimulus to condition behavior in operant conditioning? Possible Answers: In the case of positive reinforcement, the subject tries to attain a positive stimulus.
Classical conditioning: Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination. Operant conditioning: Positive-and-negative reinforcement and punishment.
Operant conditioning: Shaping. Operant conditioning: Schedules of reinforcement. Operant conditioning: Innate vs learned behaviors. Sign up to find out more in our Healthy Mind newsletter. Categories, concepts, and conditioning: how humans generalize fear.
Trends Cogn Sci Regul Ed. Front Psychol. Franzoi S. Psychology: A Discovery Experience. Implications of learning theory for developing programs to decrease overeating. Incentives and Motivation. Transl Issues Psychol Sci. Hulac D, Benson N, et al. Journal of Educational Research and Practice. Your Privacy Rights. To change or withdraw your consent choices for VerywellMind. At any time, you can update your settings through the "EU Privacy" link at the bottom of any page.
These choices will be signaled globally to our partners and will not affect browsing data. We and our partners process data to: Actively scan device characteristics for identification. I Accept Show Purposes. Table of Contents View All. Table of Contents. Classical Conditioning. Operant Conditioning. Classical vs. Classical Conditioning First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex.
Operant Conditioning First described by B. Skinner, an American psychologist Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors. Classical Conditioning: In Depth. Operant Conditioning: In Depth.
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