Disruption of trade and bad harvests meant the late s were some of the hardest on record for ordinary people. So, the social, economic and cultural impact of the war is significantly underestimated. It was so traumatic in an English context that it was easier to try to forget about it. Commanders on both sides generally did try to adhere to the military codes of conduct and rules of war set out by king and parliament, but they had none of the squeamishness for war that has been suggested.
They were committed warriors, fighting for what they often believed to be a just cause, glorying in the defeat and, where necessary, destruction of the opposing force. The Civil War was a conflict of major battles and incessant, dour skirmishing, raiding and counter-raiding, of siege and storm. The royalist troops entered the church and forced the locals to come back down to ground level, both by burning pews and rushes at the foot of the tower to smoke them out — and by offering them quarter.
However, when they emerged, 12 men were killed on the spot. Parliamentarian troops often treated any royalist soldiers and camp followers who were thought to have Irish connections brutally. Summary execution, with the killing, wounding or maiming of the women found travelling with them, almost became a matter of routine. So the image of a restrained, gentlemanly affair is fundamentally wrong, and should have no place now in our interpretations of the Civil War. Although Oliver Cromwell was important, the general who in fact led the New Model Army to victory was Thomas Fairfax, who was in charge of the infantry forces.
It was Fairfax who shaped the New Model Army, who trained them, and who developed the strategy critical to their overall success. Parliament had to create the New Model Army because its own army had been destroyed. They were scraping around. People who were manifestly unfit for military service were called up, and it was Fairfax who was trusted with turning this job lot of ruffians into a proper military force. One of the crucial decisions he took was to promote to officer rank on merit, rather than on social rank.
Fairfax had to fight a real political battle in the Commons and the Lords to push this through, but he succeeded, creating an army that was pretty much a meritocracy. In June , Fairfax and his New Model Army caught up with the king outside Naseby in Northamptonshire, where parliament won a sweeping victory.
Cromwell was responsible for the overall battle plan, but it was Fairfax who took the initiative in changing that plan during the battle. But when they realised the New Model Army was, thanks to Fairfax, actually very disciplined and well organised, they collapsed and fled.
Eventually, his New Model Army besieged Oxford, capturing what was then the royal capital. What was also remarkable was that he did it all very decently. Fairfax retired to the country rather than accept the laurels due to him as victor — one of the reasons that the misconception about Cromwell winning the war arose. But scores of foreign specialists — experts in military engineering, artillery and fortification — and cavalry commanders led both royalist and parliamentarian efforts.
The majority of foreign soldiers came from France. There were also Protestants from France and the Netherlands who wanted to fight against a king who often seemed to be allied with Catholicism.
Then there were participants from outside western Europe. One of the most famous foreign mercenaries was a Croat called Captain Carlo Fantom, who fought for parliament. He thought that Parliamentary leaders did not do enough to try to defeat Charles I.
Cromwell became the leader of England in by leading the New Model Army. This included opponents that held different opinions about the type and degree of changes they wanted but they all agreed that Charles needed to change policies or go. In Charles I betrayed them starting the Second Civil War and they resolved to 'bring him to account'. The history of the legislative body—which meets in the Palace of Westminster in London—shows how it evolved almost organically, partly Civil War culture in America—both North and South—was greatly distinct from life in the antebellum years.
The Civil War was a time of great social and political upheaval. It was also a time of great technological change. Inventors and military men devised new types of weapons, such as the repeating rifle and the submarine, that forever changed the way that wars were fought.
Live TV. This Day In History. History Vault. First English Civil War When civil war broke out in earnest in August , Royalist forces known as Cavaliers controlled northern and western England, while Parliamentarians or Roundheads dominated in the southern and eastern regions of the country.
Second English Civil War and execution of King Charles I Even in defeat, Charles refused to give in, but sought to capitalize on the religious and political divisions among his enemies. Recommended for you. Civil War Technology. American Civil War History. Civil War Sketchbook. The so-called Second Protectorate Parliament, instated in , offered to make Cromwell king. However, given that he had fought so hard to abolish the monarchy, he refused the post, and was ceremoniously appointed Lord Protector for a second time.
Cromwell died from kidney disease or a urinary tract infection in at age 59 while still serving as Lord Protector. His son Richard Cromwell assumed the post, but was forced to resign due to a lack of support within Parliament or the military.
In the leadership vacuum that ensued, George Monck assumed control of the New Model Army and spearheaded the formation of a new Parliament, which proceeded to pass constitutional reforms that re-established the monarchy. In , Charles II, who had been living in exile, returned to England to assume the throne, thereby beginning the English Restoration. His head was displayed atop a pole outside Westminster Hall for more than 20 years. Reviews in History. Mulraney, Frances.
Oliver Cromwell, BBC. Headless story. The Economist. Oliver Cromwell and Family. Westminster Abbey. Kennedy, M.
But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Subscribe for fascinating stories connecting the past to the present. Notable outcomes of the wars included the The history of the legislative body—which meets in the Palace of Westminster in London—shows how it evolved almost organically, partly
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